History of census: Journey of India’s 1.5 billion headcount

1951 Independent India’s first census

The 1951 Census was the first one to be conducted after India gained Independence, throwing
off
the shackles of British rule after 89 years. Tallying 361.8 million (36.18 crore), India’s
population saw an increase of 42 million in the past decade. It was also the first decennial
census to be held after the passage of the Census Act, 1948.

The enumeration exercise

The data collection by the enumerators was done between February 9 and March 1 and over 307
districts across all States and Union Territories of India were covered. Highlighting the
importance of their task, the then Home Minister C. Rajagopalachari, in an All India Radio
(AIR)
broadcast on February 1, told enumerators, “Like a swarm of bees that build a beautiful hive
according to the laws of geometry, each doing its part in obedience to a mystic urge, you
should
do your part according to conscience and the sense of truth inherent in us all.”

Events such as the Second World War, India’s Independence and Partition marred the decade and
hence
the questions centered around citizens’ economic status, migration/displacement, fertility,
farm
land ownership, and infirmities.

• February 9 – March 1, 1951

• • Nearly six lakh enumerators
  • 307 districts
  • All States and Union Territories

Census of firsts

Apart from being the first national Census to be governed by the Census Act, 1948, the 1951
enumeration was also the first in which village and town-level data was published for 307
districts.
A uniform format was followed for the data collection using District Census Handbooks and a
sample verification survey was conducted prior to the post-enumeration survey – a historic
first. The questionnaire too carried optional questions for the newly integrated states
regarding fertility, unemployment, indigenous persons, infirmities, cultivated land, job
search,
marriage and family.

Milestones

• First Census conducted under the Census Act, 1948
• First publication of village- and town-level data for all districts
• District Census Handbooks introduced in a uniform format
• First sample verification survey before post-enumeration checks
• Expanded questionnaire covering migration, fertility, unemployment, indigenous
  communities,
  cultivated land, infirmities, marriage and family

Results of survey

After one-and-a-half months, the Provisional Population Totals were published on April 14,
1951.
‘Population of India estimated at 361.8 million’, read The Hindu’s headline with a
sub-heading
‘13 per cent rise in ten years’. The most populous state was Uttar Pradesh (63 million),
followed by Madras (57 million), Bihar (40 million) and Bombay (36 million). Delhi’s
population
too had soared to 17 lakh, an increase of eight lakh over the previous decade owing mainly
to
the influx of refugees.

The total number of displaced persons was 7.5 million and the female population in India as
a
whole in 1951 was exactly ten million less than that of the males. Census was not taken in
Jammu
and Kashmir, covering an area of 32,250 square miles, owing to special conditions prevailing
there. The population of Jammu and Kashmir was estimated at 4.37 million as of 1951. Census
was
also not conducted tribal areas of Assam (mentioned in Part B), however estimates of the
tribal
population in that area was pegged at 5,60,000. The total land area covered by the census
was
1,138,814 square miles.

India’s population per square mile was 296 persons which was much denser population in
comparison
to neighbours Pakistan (210), China (129), Russia (23), United States (50), Brazil (15) and
France (193) but less dense than erstwhile ruler United Kingdom (536) and other nations like
Japan (579) and Germany (506).

Key Findings

Impact & analysis

The Hindu’s analysis of the census revealed that Delhi had the lowest sex ratio in the country – 751 females for every 1,000 males. “Travancore-Cochin, Madras, Orissa, Kutch and Manipur are the only States where the female population exceeds the male population. For every 1,000 males, Travancore-Cochin has 1,007 females, Madras 1,004 females, Orissa 1,023, Kutch 1,077 and Manipur 1,034,” read the article. It also noted, “In Travancore-Cochin, compared to the 1941 census, the ratio of female population to the male population shows a tendency to increase—1,007 compared to 1,002 in 1941, but in respect of Madras, Orissa, Kutch and Manipur, it shows a downward tendency”.

Similarly, an upward trend was also noticed in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Hyderabad, PEPSU, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Ajmer, Bilaspur, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Tripura and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, while Bihar’s sex ratio remained stationary. In terms of population increase in the past decade, Delhi ranked highest showing a 90% increase while Punjab showed the least with 0.4%. While states like Bombay (21.8%), Mysore (23.8%) and Coorg (35.5%) showed a substantial increase, in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, there had been a decrease in population by 8.3%.

Analysing the count, The Hindu reasoned that Punjab, West Bengal and PEPSU showed less growth as they had been greatly affected by partition and the movement of refugee population and hence it was difficult to assess the exact significance of the figures. However, Census Commissioner Mr. B. A. Gopalaswami posited that birth and death rates during the two decades and possible errors in census operations would have to be taken into account for the low growth.

What the numbers revealed

• Delhi recorded the country’s lowest sex ratio – 751 females per 1,000 males
• Travancore-Cochin was among the few states where women outnumbered men
• Delhi also witnessed the highest decadal population growth (90%), driven largely by refugee migration
• Punjab recorded the lowest growth (0.4%), reflecting the disruption caused by Partition

1961 India’s demography gets a shape

‘Free India’s Second Census’ read The Hindu’s editorial on February 10, 1961 as enumerators
prepared for the three-week counting exercise of India’s population.

The second census was aimed to aid Centre’s economic planning ahead of the Third Five-year
Plan,
focusing on employment, housing and availability of skilled personnel. India’s population
stood
at 438 million with a 21.48% rise in the past decade.

The enumeration exercise

Data collection kicked off on February 10 and concluded on March 1, leaving five days for the
revisional round. Staff were drawn from various offices of the Union and State Governments
as
well as Corporations to assist enumerators in doing door-to-door surveys.

About 25 questions were asked to citizens under the ‘individual slip’ related to the head of
the
family, sex, age last birthday, birth-place, duration of residence if born elsewhere,
marital
status, nationality, religion, literacy and education, mother tongue and knowledge of any
other
language. Inquiries of individuals also included household industry, nature of trade,
service,
employees in the establishment. Madras enumerators allowed citizens to answer ‘rationalism’
as
their chosen religion. The state offered the individual slips in five languages – English,
Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. The final check-up enumerated the homeless and people
staying in hotels and lodging houses.

• February 10 – March 1, 1961

• The Individual Slip collected information on:

  • Age and sex
  • Birthplace and migration
  • Marital status
  • Religion and nationality
  • Literacy and education
  • Mother tongue and other languages
  • Occupation and employment

Census of firsts

The 1961 census was the first one in which house listing and the condition of such houses were
undertaken forming the basis for modern-day concepts of building, households and house
census.
The enumeration was also the first which had three separate lists – (a) household schedule,
(b)
the individual slip and (c) the census population record. As the economic planning was in
focus,
the census results also published data on category of occupation, employment along with
comparison to the previous decade. Several monograph series volumes and the Census Atlas was
also published for the first time.

Milestones

• First nationwide house-listing programme
• First systematic collection of housing conditions
• Introduction of three separate schedules: Household Schedule, Individual Slip, & Census
  Population Record
• First Census Atlas and thematic monograph series
• Expanded employment and occupational classification for development planning

Results of survey

“India’s Population 438 Million,” declared The Hindu’s article on March 28, with a
sub-heading
“Lowest Rate of Rise in Madras State”. The increase in population in ten years for the whole
country was 21.49% and the census was not complete in areas like Manipur, North-East Frontier
Agency, Nagaland and Sikkim. Bhutan was not included as part of India.

States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Madras, Mysore, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh
registered increases below the country’s average, while all others registered increases
above
the country’s average. Assam showed the biggest increase (34.3%), followed by West Bengal
(32.94%). Madras recorded the smallest increase (11.73%). On the whole, India’s population
density was 384 persons per square mile – a marginal increase from 316 ten years ago. The
sex
ratio dropped from 946 in 1951 to 940 in 1961 and literacy had risen by 7.1% to 23.7%.

Key Findings

Impact & analysis

On March 30, Hindu’s editorial titled ‘Our mounting millions’, stated that ‘the 1961 census
had
confounded all seven earlier estimates based on projections of the 1951 figures’. The
Planning
Commission’s estimates had pegged the 1961 census estimates at 408 million but the census
data
revealed India’s population to be at 431 million. Highlighting the actual growth of
population
to be higher in the previous decades than estimated, The Hindu’s editorial reasoned, “The
population which the Second Plan had estimated to go up to 50 crores (500 million) by 1976,
may
well reach before the ‘Sixties are out”.

Calling for far-reaching changes in economic plans and social policies, the editorial also
highlighted the non-uniform growth in population in the states – specially in Assam (34.30)
and
West Bengal (32.94) where an ‘abnormal increase’ is seen beyond the national average.
Registrar
General Mr. Asok Mitra claimed that the beyond average increase in Assam was explained by
the
‘immigration of labour into plantations, mines, oil areas, railway projects and road
projects as
well as immigration of both communities from East Pakistan’. Bengal’s increase was due to
the
‘acknowledged influx of displaced persons from East Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal and other
places’,
specially in industrial hubs like Asansol, Durgapur, Damodar Valley and Mayurakshi basins.

Eleven out of fifteen major states gave ‘a picture of a basin rapidly filling up, not only in
the
depressions like Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, or Rajasthan, but even in the rim like
Assam,
West Bengal, Kerala, Maharashtra and the Punjab’. The editorial questioned if the ‘surplus
population’ was migrating to less populous region due to the government’s development
programmes. However, rural population comprised 82.16% of the total, which meant that
‘despite
urbanisation, pressure on land continues to be as high as ever’, explained The Hindu.

What the numbers revealed

The Census showed India was growing much faster than planners had anticipated

• Population exceeded official projections by nearly 30 million
• Literacy improved by 7.1 percentage points over 1951
• The sex ratio declined from 946 to 940 females per 1,000 males
• More than 82% of Indians still lived in rural areas despite increasing urbanisation

1971 The ‘growing’ Indian population

‘Counting more than heads’, The Hindu’s editorial dated March 10, 1971, detailed how
significant
the tenth decennial census (third, post Independence) in knowing the nation’s socio-economic
information like ethnic composition, language, dress and culture.

With over one million enumerators employed to count the population, the 1971 census operation
collected information like natural resources, physical features to fill gaps in the economic
geography of the nation. India’s population had risen to 54.7 crores with a growth rate of
13.6%
in the past decade. In spite of many family-planning awareness drives conducted, India
clocked a
24.57% increase in the past decade compared to 21.5% growth in the 1951-1961 decade. As per
United Nations’ estimates India would have one billion people by 2000, reported The Hindu.

The enumeration exercise

The census enumeration which kicked off on March 10, posed a challenge to the enumerators.
Questions in the individual survey were framed keeping the confidential nature of the
answers in
mind, stated The Hindu. Seventeen questions were asked by the part-time census volunteers
pertaining to: name, relation to head of family, sex, age, marital status, place of birth
and
its nature, religion, Scheduled Caste or Tribe, literacy, educational level, mother tongue
and
other known languages, main occupation, supplemental occupation etc. Married women were
asked
about age when they were wed, children born in the past year for family planning purposes.

• March 10, 1971
• More than one million enumerators

• The questionnaire collected information on

  • Age and sex
  • Birthplace and migration
  • Marital status
  • Religion and nationality
  • Literacy and education
  • Mother tongue and other languages
  • Occupation and employment

Census of firsts

For the first time, the enumeration exercise was split into two stages – Houselisting
operations and individual query. Apart from previous census questions, a new field of
‘Standard Urban Area (SUA)’ was introduced to understand the degree of urbanisation in
India. Post-enumeration, several state-specific studies and ethnographic studies of specific
communities.

Milestones

• First Census conducted in two stages:

  • House-listing
  • Population enumeration

• Introduction of the Standard Urban Area (SUA) concept to measure urbanisation
• Expanded post-enumeration studies, including state-specific and ethnographic research
• Collection of broader information on natural resources and physical geography to support
  development planning

Results of survey

‘108 million population rise in a decade’ exclaimed The Hindu’s headline on April 12, 1971,
raising alarm bells over India’s rapidly rising head-count. The total head count tallied at
54,69,55,945 on April 1, 1971, up from 43,90,72,582 in 1961. With a growth rate of 24.57%
and a density of 192 per sq. Km, India’s sex ratio stood at 932. However, overall literacy
rate remained low at 29.35%, with female literacy only 18.47%.

Most populous state was Uttar Pradesh (8.82 crores), followed by Bihar (5.63 crores),
Maharashtra (5.02 crores), West Bengal (4.44 crores), Andhra Pradesh (4.33 crores) and
Madhya Pradesh (4.14 crores). Fastest growing states (in terms of population) were Nagaland
(39.64%), Assam (33.51%), Haryana (31.36%), Jammu and Kashmir (29.6%) and Madhya Pradesh
(28.04%).

India’s low sex ratio was attributed to higher mortality among women due to child-bearing.
resultant morbidity and general neglect of female children and adult women, stated Census
Commissioner of India.

Key Findings

Impact & analysis

Analysis by The Hindu revealed that India’s population is spatially distributed and the
country is not yet in the modern age, while its urbanisation is low. In its report ‘Some
interesting facts about 1971 census’, The Hindu indicated that the population growth rate
(24.57% from 1961) had itself accelerated by 13.6%, in spite of the massive efforts gone into
population explosion awareness. The final head-count had also fallen short of the expected
figures by about 1.4 crore which tied neatly with the complaints of under-enumeration.

Spatial distribution among states remained the same as in 1961, with UP comprising 16.14% of
the population while the hilly states of Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland contributed the least
– 0.63% and 0.1% respectively. With the establishment of 29 new state administrations (due
to integration of princely states into India and bifurcation of bigger provinces), the
report found that density varied vastly in different areas – 548 in Kerala and 31 in
Nagaland. With higher spurts in some smaller areas, the report concluded that there is much
internal migration.

With 82% of the population still living in rural areas, the report highlighted the need to
identify growth centres among these areas and provide opportunities for good living. Nine
metropolitan areas in India – Bombay, Delhi, Madras, Calcutta, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Kanpur
and Poona – tallied 267 lakh citizens (4.88%), with Calcutta itself swelling from 2-3
million to 7 million, stated the report. Life expectancy was lower among females in
comparison to males and the dependency ratio (number of persons below the age of 15 and
those above 60 to those between these two limits of age) shows that India had not entered the
modern industrial age.

What the numbers revealed

The Census highlighted India’s widening demographic challenge

• Population growth accelerated despite nationwide family planning campaigns
• Nearly 82% of Indians continued to live in rural areas
• Female literacy remained below 20%, underscoring the education gap
• The sex ratio fell further to 932, with higher female mortality linked to childbirth and
  unequal access to healthcare
• Urbanisation remained limited, although India’s largest metropolitan centres continued
  to expand rapidly

1981 The first digitised Census

‘They Count on You’, pleaded The Hindu’s editorial on January 15, 1981 highlighting the
enormous task the enumerators were gearing up for in that decade’s population count. With
600-750 people demarcated in each ‘enumerator block’, the editorial explained that the
census will consider all children below the age of four as ‘illiterate’. “So there should be
no fussing around with child prodigies. They will be promptly dumped into the ranks of the
illiterate,” quipped The Hindu.

The survey found that India’s population had risen to 68.38 crores, an increase of 13.56
crores since 1971. Males continued to outnumber females, clocking a sex ratio of 935. The
census also revealed a drop of 50 per lakh in the population.

The enumeration exercise

“6000 metric tonnes of paper, a virtual army of 12.5 lakh enumerators fanning into various
parts of the country and even trying to contact those without a home,” read The Hindu’s
article on February 3, 1981 as the Census enumeration began. Questions included personal
details, caste, fertility, employment, migration, literacy, housing. Beggars, thieves,
smugglers, prostitutes were also included in the census as people who did not have a
‘proper’ source of income.

Enumeration was not conducted in Assam due to ‘Anti-foreigners movement’ spread across the
state seeking detection and deportation of illegal foreigners (migrated mainly since 1947
partition). Counting was conducted in Jammu-Kashmir in April due to weather constrictions.

• February 1981

• • Nearly 12.5 lakh enumerators
  • across the country
  • each covering an average of 600–750 people

• The questionnaire collected information on

  • Household composition
  • Caste and religion
  • Literacy and education
  • Employment
  • Migration
  • Fertility
  • Housing conditions

Census of firsts

Data was collected in two parts – Individual and household data. To ascertain an individual’s
physical quality of life index (PQLI), questions regarding literacy, economic activity were
added in the 1981 enumeration. Additional six questions were posed to 20% of the population
for sampling the data. Focusing on India’s fertility and mortality pattern, questions on
marital status, surviving children were asked to all women. Mapping migration from villages
to cities, questions on employment, nature of work, last residence, duration of stay and
reasons for migration were added. The housing scenario was gauged by asking questions on
nature of house, details of ownership, facilities available – this included people living on
pavements – a first for Indian census.

The 1981 census also ushered in computerisation as the enumeration data were fed into
magnetic tapes stored at data centres of the National Informatics Centre Network (NICNET).
The data was disseminated via electronic media for the first time, easing data analysis and
studying the impact.

Milestones

• First computerised Census, with data processed using magnetic tapes and NICNET
• First electronic dissemination of Census data
• Separate collection of household and individual information
• Introduction of Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) indicators
• Expanded migration questions covering previous residence, duration of stay and reason
  for migration
• First detailed housing survey covering ownership, amenities and pavement dwellers

Results of survey

“Population has doubled since Independence”, declared The Hindu’s article on March 18 when
the census data was published. Standing at 68.38 crores, India’s population had risen by
13.56 crores since 1971. “Males continue to outnumber females — 35.33 crores against 33.04
crores with literacy rate of 46.74 in the first case and 24.88 in the second. The density of
population shows a marked increase — it is now 221 persons a sq. kilometre against 177 ten
years ago.,” reported The Hindu.

Ratio of women was highest in Kerala: 1,034 females to 1,000 males while lowest in pockets of
western Uttar Pradesh and northern Madhya Pradesh. “Kerala continues to top in literacy
ratio, with a percentage of 69.17%, followed by Chandigarh (64.68), Delhi (61.06), Mizoram
(59.50), Goa (55.86), Lakshadweep (54.72), Pondicherry (54.23) and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands (51.27),” stated The Hindu.

Among states, UP continued to rank as the most populous with 11.08 crore people, followed by
Bihar (6.98 crores), Maharashtra (6.26 crores), West Bengal (5.44 crores) and Andhra Pradesh
(5.34 crores). Delhi topped among Union Territories with 61.96 lakh citizens, followed by
Goa, Daman/Diu with 10.52 lakhs and Arunachal Pradesh with 6.28 lakhs.

Key Findings

Impact & analysis

An overall analysis by The Hindu found, “Barring a slight fall in the 1911-21 decade, India’s
population has been growing steadily, but the rate was much higher after 1951”. Spatial
distribution of population across states continued with Uttar Pradesh’s rate of growth the
highest at 16.21% while Lakshadweep ranked last at 0.01%. The Hindu also found that states
like Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Haryana, Kerala, Punjab, U.P. and West Bengal and the Union
Territories of Chandigarh, Delhi, Goa, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep and Pondicherry had a
population density above the national average.

With the sex ratio being 935 women to 1,000 men, the census report found that the ratio was
gradually declining with no possible explanation. The report stated, “Explanations have been
offered that there is preference for male children resulting in the neglect of female babies
and that some part of the adverse ratio may be attributable to high maternal mortality.
Similarly, there is no firm explanation for the solitary phenomenon of Kerala where women
outnumber men”.

In an editorial titled ‘Not just mouths to feed’, dated March 23, 1981, The Hindu argued,
“Clearly, the small family norm is yet to catch on in many parts of the country — among them
in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka where the growth has been
higher than the average”.

What the numbers revealed

The Census showed that India’s population had nearly doubled since Independence, while
demographic patterns remained uneven across regions.

• Kerala emerged as both the most literate state and the only major state where women
  outnumbered men
• Population density continued to rise across much of the country
• Migration, urbanisation and housing became central themes of demographic analysis
• The declining national sex ratio remained a growing concern

1991 Population growth rate dips

Spanning 6,00,000 villages and 4,689 towns and cities, the 1981-1991 count was conducted
between February 9 and 29 by three lakh supervisors overseeing the operation. Costs for the
exercise were pegged at ₹300 crore with field work alone amounting ₹126 crores as 8000
tonnes of paper were used to print schedules, forms and instruction booklets.

India’s population stood at 843.93 million, registering a one per cent dip in growth rate from
24.66% in 1971-81 to 23.5% to 1981-91. Kerala remained the slowest growing state (13.98%)
while Nagaland saw the highest spurt (56.86%). Sex ratio declined from 934 to 929 in 1991
while the literacy stood at 52.11% (Males 63.86% and females 39.42%).

The enumeration exercise

With violence tearing apart Jammu-Kashmir, weather playing spoilsport in parts of Himachal,
Uttar Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh and remote islands of Andaman and Nicobar remaining
inaccessible, India’s head count was conducted synchronously elsewhere. A mainframe computer
was installed to read the digitised census data which was to be published in full by 1995.
Across India,163 regional centres were set up to monitor field operations of enumerators
drawn from school teachers, patwaris, gram sevaks, clerks and cadres. In spite of being
lumped under the ‘disturbed’ state category, enumerators ensured census operations were
completed smoothly in Punjab and Assam.

• February 9–29, 1991

• • Covered 6 lakh villages, 4,689 towns and cities
  • Cost approximately ₹300 crore
  • Nearly 8,000 tonnes of paper are used for schedules and manuals
  • Carried out by thousands of field staff under the supervision of nearly 3 lakh
    supervisors

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Census of firsts

The 1991 census’ questionnaire saw additions like ex-servicemen and pensioners as separate
categories, inclusion of unpaid work by women in household and type of cooking fuel used,
while Other Backward Classes (OBCs) were dropped as a category. Casting a wide net, the
enumeration counted foreign tourists on visit and inmates of docked ship while Indians other
than diplomats and their families were left out. Census data was available on floppy discs
and computer tape for the first time, reported The Hindu.

Milestones

• Separate categories for ex-servicemen and pensioners
• Recognition of unpaid household work by women
• First collection of information on cooking fuel
• OBC category removed from the questionnaire
• Foreign tourists and ship crews included in enumeration
• Census data released on floppy disks and computer tapes, expanding digital access

Results of survey

“One in every six persons in the world is an Indian,” highlighted The Hindu as India’s
population stood at 843.93 million as on March 1, 1991 compared to the world’s estimated
population of 5282.93 million. India’s decreasing growth rate of 1.16% was attributed to
slowing growth rates in States like Tamil Nadu (14.94 from 17.50), Karnataka (20.69 from
26.75), Goa (15.96 from 26.74) and Gujarat (20.80 from 27.67). Sex ratio too declined to 929
from 934 in 1981, with only Kerala having a sex ratio favourable to women (1,040: 1,000) and
Himachal Pradesh fast approaching the same feat (996).

India’s literacy stood at 52.11% with men (63.83%) outperforming women (39.42%) with Kerala
topping the states with 90.59% literacy while Bihar ranked last with 38.54%. Apart from
Pakistan (25.67%), Bangladesh (28.42%), India’s neighbours outperformed it in literacy – Sri
Lanka (87.23%) and China (69.52%).

Key Findings

Impact & analysis

The Hindu’s analysis unearthed the extremes in India’s slowing population growth rate.
Maharashtra remained the only state to have four cities with population exceeding one
million – Greater Bombay (9.92 million), Pune (2.4 million), Nagpur (1.6 million) and Nashik
(0.72 million). Maharashtra’s total population of 78.7 million also saw extremes in Greater
Bombay, Thane, Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri, each registering their own feat. Greater Bombay,
the smallest district, had the highest population density; Thane had the highest growth
rate, Ratnagiri had the highest female population and Sindhudurg the lowest growth rate.

A deeper look at India’s demographic profile revealed that in spite of a reduced growth rate
of 2.11%, India would achieve the replacement fertility level by 2000 and stare at a one
billion plus population in the 21st century. States with declining growth rate through the
decade – Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Karnataka and Goa continued to lead in literacy while
the populous States – Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh
continued to lag below the national literacy average of 52.11%. The lowered sex ratio,
adverse to females explained the disparity between sexes in health care and share in family
resources and the lower expectancy of life at birth for females, reported The Hindu.

“The root cause of the problem of Indian poverty is its large and growing population,” opined
renowned economist S.L. Rao in The Hindu. Noting the decade’s average inflation of 9% and
growth rate of 2.35%, Mr. Rao estimated that India’s Gross National Product (GNP) had to
increase by at least 11.35% for per capita to remain unchanged. Income disparity remained
uneven with 30% falling below poverty line, 50% categorised really poor, highlighting
Centre’s failure to invest in raise India’s social infrastructure – health, education and
housing. “If citizens of the metropolises have to pay for health, hygiene and education,
other components of economic infrastructure must be taken up by private sector,” concluded
Mr. Rao.

What the numbers revealed

• Population growth slowed by about one percentage point compared to the previous decade
• India accounted for one in every six people in the world
• Literacy crossed the 50% mark for the first time
• Kerala remained the only state with more women than men (1,040 females per 1,000 males)
• Regional differences in fertility and literacy became increasingly pronounced

2001 India passes one billion mark

The new millennium saw India pass two milestones – one billion citizens and reverse the
falling sex ratio. With the population standing at 1.02 billion in 2001, India had seen a
jump in literacy from 52.21% to 65.38% while sex ratio improved from 929 to 933. However,
the exclusion grabbed headlines as the census failed to capture data about OBCs, unpaid work
of housewives, SC/ST communities among Christians and Muslims and income levels.

The enumeration exercise

Training 2.4 million enumerators in 70,000 sessions to cover 200 million households, the 2001
census saw India pass the one billion head count. The milestone was achieved a year previously when
Aastha Arora, was born on May 11, 2000 at New Delhi’s Safdarjung Hospital. India is the only country which does a manual door-to-door census survey and the process was a logistical hurdle due to high distrust among public. The 23 questions in the individual slip recorded information on sex, gender, literacy, religion, marital status, occupation, marriage age, travel to work, fertility rates, migration, unemployment etc.

• 2001

• • 24 lakh enumerators
  • 70,000 training sessions
  • Nearly 20 crore households covered

• Enumerators collected information on

  • Age and sex
  • Literacy and education
  • Religion
  • Occupation and employment
  • Marriage and fertility
  • Migration
  • Travel to work
  • Disability

Census of firsts

As the count kicked off, its exclusions came sharply into view. As President Mr. K. R.
Narayanan – a Dalit Christian, filled the first Census form, he was dismayed to find his
community (Paravan) was not included in the Scheduled Caste (SC) list. The 1990
constitutional amendment had extended the SC status to include Sikhs and Buddhists, keeping
Muslims and Christians still out of loop. While religion was recorded, OBCs too remained
excluded. This census also recorded disabled population, landholding of households, age of
men during marriage, type of educational institution being attended.

The census also captured paid and unpaid women’s work such as – labour on farm, rearing of
goats, sale of farm produce, fish and vegetables, collection of tendu leaves, rice
dehusking, grinding of masala, pottery, assisting in blacksmithy, family shops, manufacture
of bamboo products, papad, pickles, products from embroidery, knitting, weaving, preparation
of paper bags, book-binding, painting, poultry, rag-pickers, construction labour, running of
beauty parlour and tuition at home. However, it did not capture the unpaid domestic
productivity of housewives.

Milestones

• First nationwide count of the disabled population
• Information collected on household landholdings
• First questions on men’s age at marriage
• Expanded information on women’s economic activities, including farm work, home-based
  production and informal employment

Results of survey

Adding 181 million people to its citizenry between 1991 and 2001, India’s total headcount
stood at 1.02 billion on March 1, 2001 – accounting for 16.7% of the world’s population
living in 2.4% of the world’s land area. The growth rate slowed by 2.52% in the decade
approaching the millennium, while literacy rate and sex ratio improved to 65.38% and 933
respectively. Uttar Pradesh remained the most populous state, accounting for 16.7% of
India’s population, followed by Maharashtra (9.42%) and Bihar (8.07%).

The South’s population continued to climb slowly as Kerala topped with lowest growth rate of
9.42%, followed by Tamil Nadu (11.19%) and Andhra Pradesh (13.86%). Kerala also topped the
country in sex ratio at 1058 and literacy 90.92%, while laggards Haryana and Bihar remained
last in sex ratio (861) and literacy (47.53%) respectively. Women finally crossed the
halfway mark in literacy, recording 54.16%, while men steamrolled ahead boasting a rate of
75.85%.

Key Findings

Impact & analysis

Unlike the previous decade, migration was seen more towards state and Union territories with
less growth rate as two-thirds of the population was recorded to be living in those areas. A
reversal in India’s widening sex ratio was seen with a jump of six points, which was
gradually achieved with a jump in literacy rate.

‘Puzzling patterns’ mused The Hindu, as it noted that traditionally backward states like
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha showed the highest jump in literacy rates (15-20%)
while Bihar and Haryana remained an outlier in a slowing growth rate across states. Smaller
northeastern states like Sikkim, Nagaland and Manipur which usually see an uptick in growth
rates were joined by two larger states – Bihar recorded an accelerated growth of 28.62% (up
from 23.49% in 1991) while Haryana recorded 28.43% (up from 26.28%).

Similarly, the overall improved sex ratio brought little cheer as Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat,
Haryana, Punjab and Delhi saw the number of women per 1000 males reduce in this decade.
Delhi’s sex ratio (821) remained the lowest among India’s states, while Dadra and Nager
Haveli (811) ranked lowest among Union territories. Curiously, Himachal Pradesh saw an
improvement in literacy from 63.86% in 1991 to 76.48% in 2001 but a reduction in sex ratio
from 976 to 861, disproving co-relation between gender preference and education.

What the numbers revealed

• India became home to 16.7% of the world’s population, while occupying only 2.4% of the
  world’s land area
• Population growth slowed further compared to the previous decade
• Female literacy crossed the 50% mark for the first time
• The national sex ratio improved after decades of decline
• Southern states continued to record significantly lower population growth than northern
  India

2011 NPR enters in India’s headcount

The enumeration exercise

“The most cost-effective census,” reported The Hindu as the Centre stated that a mere ₹18.33 per
head was spent in counting India’s headcount. Covering citizens residing in 7,742 towns and
six lakh villages in 640 districts, a workforce of 2.7 million were engaged for the
enumeration. Data on migrant population was collected on the last day of enumeration at
airports, railway stations, seaports and bus terminals. ‘Gender critical’ districts were
identified based on 2001 data on sex ratio, female literacy rate, and female work
participation and enumerators were given special training to collect accurate information.

• 2010–11

• • 6 lakh villages
  • 7,742 towns
  • 640 districts
  • Nearly 27 lakh enumerators

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• The questionnaire collected information on

–>

Census of firsts

2011 marked the preparation of the first ever National Population Register (NPR) – all persons
aged above 15 were photographed and finger-printed to create a biometric database. The NPR
was aimed at generating a smart card with each citizen having their own unique
identification number (UID). For the first time, enumerators counted all citizens including
illegal immigrants from Bangladesh and the Centre assured their details would be kept
confidential.

Questions on household possessions like computers, laptops, and mobile phones were added to
assess India’s digital progress, while a new classification of employed citizens termed
‘marginal workers’ was added to distinguish between those who had worked for zero-to-three
months and from those who had worked for three-to-six months. A door-to-door enumeration of
both rural and urban household for determining castes was also done – a first since
independence.

Milestones

• First National Population Register (NPR) with biometric enrolment
• Photographs and fingerprints collected for residents aged 15 years and above
• Foundation for a unique identity (UID) database
• First post-Independence door-to-door caste enumeration through a separate exercise
• New questions on household assets including:

  • Computers
  • Laptops
  • Mobile phones

Results of survey

Adding 181 million heads during the decade, India’s population stood at 1.21 billion on April
1, 2011. Sex ratio improved from 933 in 2001 to 940 in 2011, with the six most populous
states seeing a dip in decadal growth rate – Uttar Pradesh (declined from 25.85% to 20.09%),
Maharashtra (22.73% to 15.99%), Bihar (28.62% to 25.07%), West Bengal (17.77% to 13.93%),
Andhra Pradesh (14.59%) and Madhya Pradesh (24.36% to 20.30%). India’s overall literacy
increased from 64.83% to 74.04%, but child sex ratio (children aged between 0-6) fell to its
lowest since Independence – 914, highlighting concerns of female foeticide and selective sex
determination.

Retaining its top spot in both favourable sex ratio and literacy, Kerala recorded 1,084 and
93.91% respectively. Daman and Diu ranked the lowest in sex ratio (618) while Bihar remained
least literate (61.8%). Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Mizoram, Andaman and Nicobar
and lowest states on child sex ratio – Haryana (830) and Punjab (846), recorded an
increasing trend in overall sex ratio. Mizoram (971) and Meghalaya (970) led the nation in
child sex ratio but remained among one of the 27 states which saw decline in overall sex
ratio.

Key Findings

Impact & analysis

The three per cent fall in decadal population growth rate from 21.54% to 17.64% brought cheer
as India’s population was stabilising soon. The Hindu’s analysis noted that the literacy
among women showed a better jump (64.83% to 74.04%) than men (75.26% to 82.14%), closing the
gap between the sexes. The improving sex ratio from 932 to 940 was attributed to natural
longevity of women and improvements in health care over the years. A closer look at the
falling child sex ratio showed that while the South and East had a decent ratio, the North
and West showed deep dips – highlighting the states’ growing ‘son preference’. The Hindu
declared the government’s efforts to tackle female foeticide through bans on
sex-determination tests as ‘largely ineffective’. The non-disclosure of raw caste census
data in spite of the survey has meant that India’s reservations remain classified as SC/ST and OBCs.

What the numbers revealed

• Population growth slowed to its lowest decadal rate since Independence
• Female literacy improved faster than male literacy, narrowing the education gap
• The overall sex ratio improved to 940, continuing the recovery seen in 2001
• However, the child sex ratio fell to 914, its lowest level since Independence, raising
  concerns over sex-selective practices